National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
West Virginia University
P.O. Box 6064
Morgantown, WV
26506-6064

Conservation: It's the Future of Water
by Harriet Emerson former On Tap Editor
Mohamed Lahlou, Ph.D.
former NDWC Technical Assistance Specialist

The history of humankind is the story of water—a tale of communities blooming along the banks of rivers and edges of oceans. No civilization flourishes without water and human survival depends on good drinking water.

All the water that ever has been or will ever be on Earth is here now, and with only 1 percent of all that water available for drinking, water conservation makes sense. According to former U.S. Senator Paul Simon's Tapped Out, the world's population of 5.9 billion will double in the next 40 to 90 years.

"At least 300 million people live in regions of severe water shortages. By the year 2025, it will be three billion. Compounding these grim realities," says Simon, "is the fact that per capita world water consumption is rising twice as fast as the world's population."

According to David Prasifka"s Water Supply Planning, two billion people worldwide don't have an adequate water supply and three billion are without adequate sanitation. Exact figures are difficult to come by, however, the numbers are staggering.

What is water conservation?
We are in the midst of a national shift away from the traditional water supply management concept that perpetuated an endless thirst for new water sources, toward water demand management and a holistic view of ecosystems.

The August 1998 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Water Conservation Plan Guidelines state that "water conservation consists of any beneficial reduction in water losses, waste, or use." For water systems serving populations of 10,000 or fewer, the guidelines recommend universal metering, water accounting and loss control, costing and pricing, and information and education.

The American Water Works Association (AWWA), which has long urged utilities to adopt efficient water use policies, uses the term "total water management," which it says "recognizes the paradigm shift from considering water available in unlimited quantities to understanding water supply as a limited resource."

AWWA sees this view of water management as an "attempt by the water supply industry to assure that water resources are managed for the greatest good of the people and the environment and that all segments of society have a voice in the process." It is a concept that considers integration of the complete water cycle and holds that "land and water resource management must be integrated at the local level."

In "Conservation in the Arabian Gulf Countries," a Journal of American Water Works Association article, Adnan Akkad suggests that a better term for water conservation is "effective water use," because the term "conservation" may carry the stigma of inconvenience and discomfort, conditions that occur with the more stringent forms of water use restrictions.

So Many People, So Little Water
The 1997 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) video series Cadillac Desert, based on Mark Reisner's book by the same name, states that 80 percent of the illnesses in developing countries can be traced to poor drinking water and lack of sanitation. According to a United Nations report, 9,500 children die each day either because of lack of water or, more frequently, because of diseases caused by polluted water.

In a PBS interview with Mike Malone, Sandra Postel, director of the Global Water Policy Project and author of The Last Oasis, comments, "In most of the countries in Africa and the Middle East, populations are going to double within about 30 years. We see enormous water scarcity, even at today's levels of population, and in Africa, extraordinary poverty."

The British publication People and the Planet predicts that by the year 2025 at least 65 nations will experience severe water shortages. There's even talk of water wars. Where? In terms of the potential for conflict "the three major river basins in the Middle East: the Jordan, the Nile, and the Tigris-Euphrates," says Postel.

In Tapped Out, Simon concurs. "Middle Eastern leaders who are usually reluctant to agree on anything are unanimous in saying that severe water shortages lie ahead for that region, and unless this difficulty is solved, armed confrontation is almost inevitable."

What about water scarcity in this country?
"While our problems are not as severe in the U.S. as in most nations," says Simon, "three of the fastest growing large states—California, Texas, and Florida—also feel the squeeze on water supplies and will soon face major difficulties."

In a July 1998 article in The Atlantic Monthly "Travels Into America's Future," Robert Kaplan comments, "Any place with less than 20 inches of rainfall a year—a category that includes almost all of the American West—will sustain human population only with difficulty . . . Nature itself ordained government help and supervision because the lands west of the 100th meridian [which runs through the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas] receive, for the most part, less than 20 inches of rain annually—the minimum required not only to sustain a human population, but also for agriculture without irrigation.

"And the discovery, mapping, and exploitation of aquifers in the first half of the twentieth century has further postponed the day of reckoning for humankind and nature in the West," Kaplan adds. "But that day is coming."

The history of the American West is a story of dry earth and extraordinary engineering feats in the effort to obtain water. "Even in the Pacific Northwest, where they have a lot of it, the story of the West is the story of water," says Reisner, in a PBS interview with Malone. "We're always trying to manipulate it, move it, send it from where it is to where it isn't."

California Is a Good Example
Those who have lived through a drought or water rationing understand the need to conserve. Anyone who has traveled the southern California coast with its parched golden earth splintered in fissures, or seen a noon sun evaporate spray over irrigated green patches of the Central Valley understands the need for conservation.

Southern California, notes Simon, averages less than 10 inches of rain per year. (Other sources put the amount at 11 inches.) And Los Angeles, with a population of approximately 14 million, he says, is drier than Beruit, Lebanon. Reisner notes that even with all those people, Los Angeles only uses 8–10 percent of the water in that state.

Where does all the water go? According to the Water Resource Institute, approximately two-thirds of global water withdraws are used for agriculture and a quarter for industry. In a November/December 1996 Mother Jones article, "How Paradise Lost," Gray Brechin discusses California's Central Valley, a 500-mile-long basin enclosed by the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the east and the Coast Ranges to the west. The northern third is known as the Sacramento Valley and the southern two-thirds, the San Joaquin Valley. "Human ingenuity and capital turned California into the greatest food and fiber factory ever known," he says.

Brechin says that by the turn of the century, most of the valley's artesian wells had gone dry from continual overdraft and drought. "Pumps took over, dropping water tables and stanching the flow of

springs upon which wildlife depended. By 1902, Congress had passed the Reclamation Act, committing the federal government in perpetuity to building dams and canals to irrigate the arid lands of the West."

Reisner says that almost 1,400 dams were built in California, although not all of these are huge dams. "We've totally re-engineered these systems to the point that there's virtually no natural ecosystem functioning anymore," says Postel.

Damming alters the environment by harnessing wild rivers and often destroys wildlife habitats. Irrigation can leave huge deposits of salt. Brechin notes that three million tons of salt are carried annually into the San Joaquin Valley via federal and state aqueducts. Much of it is picked up by pumps and reapplied to the fields. A large part of it, however, flows into Southern California to become drinking water.

The financial cost is extraordinary. According to Brechin, "In 1988, a government economist calculated that taxpayers had invested $6.8 billion in the federally run Central Valley Project in the 50 years since its inception in 1937."

But why should the rest of us conserve?
Those in the East—its hills lush with broad-leafed green trees—or people in states, such as Idaho with small populations and abundant water supplies, may question the need for conservation.

Conserving water increases total amounts available and often eliminates the need to find new sources. The 1998 EPA guidelines state "the infrastructure needs of the nation's water systems are great. Strategic use of water conservation can help extend the value and life of infrastructure assets used in both water supply and wastewater treatment."

How great are the system needs in this country? EPA's 1997 Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey estimates that over the next 20 years we will need to spend $138.4 billion on infrastructure—small systems need $37.2 billion of that amount.

EPA's 1996 Clean Water Needs Survey, whose statistics are primarily based upon a database containing information about 16,000 publicly owned wastewater treatment facilities, estimates that $139.5 billion will be needed for the country's wastewater systems over the next 20 years. Of that amount, water quality program needs for communities with fewer than 10,000 people are estimated at $13.8 billion.

What about small systems?
Conservation may look like income down the drain to a small drinking water system in the business of selling water. To consumers it may simply sound like higher prices and restriction of habits.

Loss of income is a very real consideration. In his book Water Conservation, William Maddaus warns that one of the major concerns when increasing water-use efficiency is the possibility of an immediate reduction in utility revenues. Therefore, he says, skillful advance planning is required to take into account conservation-related reductions as they affect increases in demand and revenue anticipated from projected growth.

A 1994 AWWA white paper "Total Water Management" states, "Water is a renewable but finite natural resource. Water conservation considerations should be a part of any utility's water resources planning. Conservation, encompassing supply and demand management, is appropriate to some degree for all utilities and not just those in water-short areas."

To convince the local population that water conservation makes good water and economic policy, however, local water utilities will need to educate consumers about the benefits of regionally appropriate conservation measures and resources planning. Although, the paper adds, "this may be a daunting task for those utilities in areas where water resources are plentiful."

In a 1993 Journal of the AWWA article, Amy Vickers, one of the experts in the field, notes that there are benefits to conserving. "A key assumption underlying the potential incentive strategies for conservation is that increased water efficiency is a substitute for water supply capacity and has equivalent value in the market place."

According to a 1992 EPA Office of Water, Statement of Principles on Efficient Water Use, "Efficient water use can have major environmental, public health, and economic benefits by helping to improve water quality, maintain aquatic ecosystems, and protect drinking water resources. As we face increasing risk to ecosystems and their biological integrity, the inextricable link between water quality and water quantity becomes more important.

"Water efficiency is one way of addressing water quality and quantity goals. The efficient use of water can also prevent pollution by reducing wastewater flows, recycling industrial process water, reclaiming wastewater, and using less energy."

A few years ago, several members of the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse toured a community water plant and were told the system uses a block rate system in which cost decreases as water use increases. Good for business, they said. "What about wastewater?" our engineer asked. "Not my problem," was the operator's wry response. It is becoming increasingly clear that water use or misuse is our problem.

Will states and communities conserve?
According to an October press release by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the answer is "yes." USGS statistics show that the nation is using less water—2 percent less than we used in 1990 and nearly 10 percent less than in 1980, despite a continuous increase in population over that same time period.

After continual increases in the nation's reported total use of surface water and groundwater from 1950 to 1980, water use declined and has remained fairly constant since the mid-1980s, according to the USGS report.

In Urban Water Demand Management and Planning, Duane Baumann states that in a survey of 1,383 households in both humid and semiarid regions in the U.S., 86 percent perceived the need to conserve as moderately important to very important. And conservation is impossible without the support of the public.

"The nation is clearly using surface and groundwater resources more efficiently," says Robert Hirsch, USGS chief hydrologist. "Enhanced citizen awareness of the value of water and conservation programs in many communities across the country have helped to cut water use in spite of continued population growth. Improved irrigation techniques and more efficient use of water by industry have contributed to reduced water use as well."

According to EPA's guidelines, as of late 1997, 18 jurisdictions (primarily states) had instituted water conservation planning guidelines for water utilities. All of these planning guidelines—the EPA surveyed 12 of the 18—require that utilities address leak detection, metering, pricing, and public education. The measures most frequently mentioned in statutes and guidelines are: metering and meter repair, leak detection and repair, rate design and conservation pricing, plumbing retrofits and promotion of water-saving fixtures, public information and education, and landscaping.

Is conservation required by law? The answer is, that depends where you live. No, it's not required by federal law. Your community water system won't violate any EPA regulations for refusing to implement water conservation measures. However, at their discretion, states may require drinking water systems to prepare a plan consistent with federal or state guidelines as a condition of qualifying for a loan under the Drinking Water State Revolving Loan Fund (DWSRF). EPA's guidelines contain a section that lists the primacy agency, DWSRF agency, and water resource agency for each state.

What can we do to conserve?
According to Darilek, one issue upon which water managers agree is that water conservation needs to link water quantity and quality together in a direct manner. Incorporating water conservation into water policy means that for a water conservation program to be highly effective, both quantity and quality considerations and activities must be included in the program.

The EPA's Office of Water strongly encourages all sectors, including municipal, industrial, and agricultural, to achieve efficient water use. And, the planning approach suggested by EPA's 1998 Water Conservation Plan Guidelines is designed to be accessible and relatively inexpensive.

Think Creatively, Take Small Steps
In 1982, the EPA vetoed the proposed Two Forks Dam in Colorado following protests by environmentalists determined to save wild rivers and the habitat of the sand hill crane. Denver then developed xeriscaping, which encourages landscaping with plants that are either indigenous to an area (growing wild within 50 miles) or that require very little supplemental irrigation. (For more about xeriscaping see Xeriscaping Conserves Water.)

A September 1998 flyer from the Eastern Municipal Water District in Perris, California, encourages customers to turn down their watering clocks in October. "Nearly 50 percent of the domestic water used in Southern California goes toward watering lawns and landscaping around single-family homes. Reducing this type of usage by just 6 percent would be sufficient to provide water for 300,000 people."

Wellesley, Massachusetts, created a very successful conservation program through a comprehensive strategy that ties peak demand rates, full cost pricing, and public education. The program helped the community reduce its peak water demand by 90 percent.

Under a set of 1989 state laws that were to be phased in by 1991, Connecticut mandated residential retrofit programs for utilities serving more than 1,000 customers; uniform plumbing efficiency standards for toilets, showerheads, urinals, and faucet aerators; and water conservation planning as a prerequisite for state regulatory permit actions, including rate increases.

Whenever possible, educate the public. If you can't get through to adults, consider the kids. More and more schools are including water conservation as an element of education, and whatever children learn they take home to their parents.

Use Water More than Once
An "AWWA Statement of Policy on Water Supply Matters," revised in 1995, says that first and foremost AWWA believes that sources of water with best available quality should be used for potable purposes and encourages responsible use of reclaimed water in lieu of potable water for nonpotable uses.

Many areas of the country reclaim graywater or wastewater. The USGS report estimates that the amount of wastewater reclaimed in 1995 is more than double the amount used in the 1970s and 1980s. The release can be returned either to the natural environment or reclaimed for beneficial uses, such as irrigation of golf courses and parks. Illinois and Ohio reported the largest release of treated wastewater. Florida, California, and Arizona also reported large uses of reclaimed wastewater.

The 1993 National Geographic "Water: The Power, Promise, and Turmoil of North America's Fresh Water," includes an aerial view of an upscale community in Glendale, Arizona, laced with artificial lakes filled with treated wastewater.

Reisner says that California has done a fairly serious job stretching its water supply through conservation, especially in the agricultural sector, and that Los Angeles reclaims water by using tertiary or reverse osmosis and uses much of it to water outdoor landscaping.

"The fact of the matter is we can't afford to build these big projects anymore," he adds. "They're simply too expensive. The environmental effects of them are just so great, so profound, that politically, I don't think you can get them through."

According to the Cadillac Desert video, Israel currently recycles two thirds of its wastewater and reuses it to drip irrigate crops. Drip irrigation, the video says, can save one third of what is used in spray irrigation.

In the PBS interview, Postel says that "conservation, efficiency, recycling water, reusing water—are in most cases now the most cost-effective and the most environmentally sound ways of meeting new water needs. By far, they're more cost-effective and more environmentally sound than all the supply-side solutions we've been using in the past.

"And," she says, "they've barely been tapped. We've been still focused very much on building dams and river diversions, and not looking at these conservation alternatives. And they're out there; they're waiting in the wings; the technology is there. The problem is we haven't put in place the incentives through pricing, marketing, and other market mechanisms and regulations to get them out there, to get them used."

References
Akkad, Adnan A. 1990. Journal of American Water Works Association. "Conservation in the Arabian Gulf Countries."

American Water Works Association. 1994. AWWA white paper "Total Water Management." Denver: American Water Works Association.

American Water Works Association. 1995. "AWWA Statement of Policy on Water Supply Matters." Denver: American Water Works Association.

Baumann, Duane, J. Boland, and M. Hanemann. 1997. Urban Water Demand Management and Planning. New York: McGraw Hill.

Brechin, Gray. November/December 1996. Mother Jones. "How Paradise Lost."

Kaplan, Robert. July 1998. The Atlantic Monthly. "Travels Into AmericaÕs Future."

Maddaus, William O. 1987. Water Conservation. Denver: American Water Works Association.

Prasifka, David W. 1994. Water Supply Planning. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Postel, Sandra. 1992. The Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

Public Broadcasting Service. 1997. Cadillac Desert video series.

Reisner, Marc. 1986. Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water. New York: Viking Penguin, Inc.

Simon, Paul. 1998. Tapped Out: The Coming World Crisis in Water and What We Can Do About It. New York: Welcome Rain Publishers.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Water Conservation Plan Guidelines.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water. 1992. "Statement of Principles on Efficient Water Use." Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1995. "Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995," (USGS Circular 1200). Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.

Photos: ArtToday.com unless otherwise noted.